- Build your team means you need to build support for yourself and work also needs people just like you.
- Share credit widely means those who gave you idea, supported you or helped you in any way, share credit with them that will give them motivation, encouragement and satisfaction.
- Ask for advice before asking for resources means do not run for resources at first, try to work on the idea, make it feasible, ask for advice and guidance from your team, mentor and role model.
- Under promise and over deliver means don't promise what you can't deliver
- Do any job needed regardless job description, being an intrapreneur you need to do a lot more and some times a kind of task that you are not familiar with nor are written in your job description.
- It is easier to ask for forgiveness than permission, if you wait for the permission from your management before doing or trying anything new and creative, then you can not do it. Try to perform and do what it takes, if succeeded.... fine.. if not than ask for forgiveness because unless and until you don't try how ll you know about the success or failure.
- Interest of the company first when circumvent bureaucracy
- Come to work each day willing to be fired
- Be true to the goals, be realistic to the way to achieve them
- Honor and educate your sponsors
Wednesday, June 29, 2011
10 Commandments Of An Intrapreneur
Tuesday, June 28, 2011
Methods of Generating New Ideas for Entrepreneurs
Even with a wide variety of sources available, coming up with an idea as the basis for a new venture can still be a difficult problem. The entrepreneur can use several methods to help generate and test new ideas including focus groups, brainstorming and problem inventory analysis
. The following are some of the key methods to help generate end test new ideas:
1. Focus Groups – these are the groups of individuals providing information in a structural format. A moderator leads a group of people through an open, in-depth discussion rather than simply asking questions to solicit participant response. Such groups form comments in open-end in-depth discussions for a new product area that can result in market success. In addition to generating new ideas, the focus group is an excellent source for initially screening ideas and concept.
2. Brainstorming – it is a group method for obtaining new ideas and solutions. It is based on the fact that people can be stimulated to greater creativity by meeting with others and participating in organized group experiences. The characteristics of this method are keeping criticism away; free wheeling of idea, high quantity of ideas, combination and improvements of ideas. Such type of session should be fun with no scope for domination and inhibition. Brainstorming has a greater probability of success when the effort focuses on specific product or market area.
3. Problem inventory analysis– it is a method for obtaining new ideas and solutions by focusing on problems. This analysis uses individuals in a manner that is analogous to focus groups to generate new product areas. However, instead of generating new ideas, the consumers are provided with list of problems and then asked to have discussion over it and it ultimately results in an entirely new product idea. The entrepreneur is not limited by only the three methods presented in this article.
Monday, June 27, 2011
The process of starting a new venture is embodied in the entrepreneurial process, which involves
more than just problem solving in a typical management position. An entrepreneur must find,
evaluate, and develop an opportunity by overcoming the forces that resist the creation of
something new. The process has four distinct phases: (1) identification and evaluation of the
opportunity, (2) development of the business plan, (3) determination of the required resources,
and (4) management of the resulting enterprise. Although these phases proceed progressively,
no one stage is dealt with in isolation or is totally completed before work on other phases occurs.
For example, to successfully identify and evaluate an opportunity (phase 1), an entrepreneur
must have in mind the type of business desired (phase 4).
Identify and Evaluate the Opportunity
Opportunity identification and evaluation is a very difficult task. Most good business
opportunities do not suddenly appear, but rather result from an entrepreneur’s alertness to
possibilities, or in some case, the establishment of mechanisms that identify potential
opportunities. For example, one entrepreneur asks at every cocktail party whether anyone is
using a product that does not adequately fulfill its intended purpose. This person is constantly
looking for a need and an opportunity to create a better product. Another entrepreneur always
monitors the play habits and toys of her nieces and nephews. This is her way of looking for any
unique toy product niche for a new venture.
Although most entrepreneurs do not have formal mechanisms or identifying business
opportunities, some sources are often fruitful: consumers and business associates, members of
the distribution system, and technical people. Often, consumers are the best source of ideas for a
new venture. How many times have you heard someone comment, “If only there was a product
that would…” This comment can result in the creation of new business. One entrepreneur’s
evaluation of why so many business executives were complaining about the lack of good
technical writing and word-processing services resulted in the creation of her own business
venture to fill this need. Her technical writing service grew to 10 employees in two years.
Due to their close contact with the end user, channel members in the distribution system also see
product needs. One entrepreneur started a college bookstore after haring all the students
complain about the high cost of books and the lack of service provided by the only bookstore on
campus. Many other entrepreneurs have identified business opportunities through a discussion
with a retailer, wholesaler, or manufacturer’s representative.
Finally, technically oriented individuals often conceptualize business opportunities when
working on other projects. One entrepreneur’s business resulted from seeing the application of a
plastic resin compound in developing and manufacturing a new type of pallet while developing
the resin application in another totally unrelated area—casket moldings.
Whether the opportunity is identified by using input from consumers, business associates,
channel members, or technical people, each opportunity must be carefully screened and
evaluated. This evaluation of the opportunity is perhaps the most critical element of the
entrepreneurial process, as it allows the entrepreneur to assess whether the specific product or
service has the returns needed compared to the resources required. This evaluation process
involves looking at the length of the opportunity, its real and perceived value, its risks and
returns, its fit with the personal skills and goals of the entrepreneur, and its uniqueness or
differential advantage in its competitive environment.
The market size and the length of the window of opportunity are the primary basis for
determining the risks and rewards. This risks reflect the market, competition, technology, and
amount of capital involved. The amount of capital needed provides the basis for the return and
rewards. The methodology for evaluating risks and rewards frequently indicates that an
opportunity offers neither a financial nor a personal reward commensurate with the risks
involved. One company that delivered bark mulch to residential and commercial users for
decoration around the base of trees and shrubs added loam and shells to its product line. These
products were sold to the same customer base using the same distribution (delivery) system.
Follow-on products are important for a company expanding or diversifying in a particular
channel. A distribution channel member such as Kmart, Service Merchandise, or Target prefers
to do business with multi-product, rather than single-product, firms.
Finally, the opportunity must fit the personal skills and goals of the entrepreneur. It is
particularly important that the entrepreneur be able to put forth the necessary time and effort
required to make the venture succeed. Although many entrepreneurs feel that the desire can be
developed along the venture, typically it does not materialize. An entrepreneur must believe in
the opportunity so much that he or she will make the necessary sacrifices to develop the
opportunity and manage the resulting organization.
Opportunity analysis, or what is frequently called an opportunity assessment plan, is one method
for evaluating an opportunity. It is not a business plan. Compared to a business plan, it should
be shorter; focus on the opportunity, not the entire venture; and provide the basis for making the
decision of whether or not to act on the opportunity.
An opportunity assessment plan includes the following: a description of the product or service,
an assessment of the opportunity, an assessment of the entrepreneur and the team, specifications
of all the activities and resources needed to translate the opportunity into a viable business
venture, and the source of capital to finance the initial venture as well as its growth. The
assessment of the opportunity requires answering the following questions:
• What market need does it fill?
• What personal observations have you experienced or recorded with regard to that market
need?
• What social condition underlies this market need?
• What market research data can be marshaled to describe this market need?
• What patents might be available to fulfill this need?
• What competition exists in this market? How would you describe the behavior of this
competition?
• What does the international market look like?
• What does the international competition look like?
• Where is the money to be made in this activity?
Developing a Business Plan
A good business plan must be developed in order to exploit the defined opportunity. This is a
very time-consuming phase of the entrepreneurial process. An entrepreneur usually has not
prepared a business plan before and does not have the resources available to do a good job. A
good business plan is essential to developing the opportunity and determining the resources
required, obtaining those resources, and successfully managing the resulting venture.
Determine the Resources Required
The resources needed for addressing the opportunity must also be determined. This process
starts with an appraisal of the entrepreneur’s present resources. Any resources that are critical
need to be differentiated from those that are just helpful. Care must be taken not to
underestimate the amount of variety of resources needed. The downside risks associated with
insufficient or inappropriate resources should also be assessed.
Acquiring the needed resources in a timely manner while giving up as little control as possible is
the next step in the entrepreneurial process. An entrepreneur should strive to maintain as large
an ownership position as possible, particularly in the start-up stage. As the business develops,
more funds will probably be needed to finance the growth of the venture, requiring more
ownership to be relinquished. Alternative suppliers of these resources, along with their needs
and desires, need to be identified. By understanding resource supplier needs, the entrepreneur
can structure a deal that enables the recourses to be acquired at the lowest possible cost and the
least loss of control.
Manage the Enterprise
After resources are acquired, the entrepreneur must use them to implement the business plan.
The operational problems of the growing enterprise must also be examined. This involves
implementing a management style and structure, as well as determining the key variables for
success. A control system must be established, so that any problem areas can be quickly
identified and resolved. Some entrepreneurs have difficulty managing and growing the venture
they created.
more than just problem solving in a typical management position. An entrepreneur must find,
evaluate, and develop an opportunity by overcoming the forces that resist the creation of
something new. The process has four distinct phases: (1) identification and evaluation of the
opportunity, (2) development of the business plan, (3) determination of the required resources,
and (4) management of the resulting enterprise. Although these phases proceed progressively,
no one stage is dealt with in isolation or is totally completed before work on other phases occurs.
For example, to successfully identify and evaluate an opportunity (phase 1), an entrepreneur
must have in mind the type of business desired (phase 4).
Identify and Evaluate the Opportunity
Opportunity identification and evaluation is a very difficult task. Most good business
opportunities do not suddenly appear, but rather result from an entrepreneur’s alertness to
possibilities, or in some case, the establishment of mechanisms that identify potential
opportunities. For example, one entrepreneur asks at every cocktail party whether anyone is
using a product that does not adequately fulfill its intended purpose. This person is constantly
looking for a need and an opportunity to create a better product. Another entrepreneur always
monitors the play habits and toys of her nieces and nephews. This is her way of looking for any
unique toy product niche for a new venture.
Although most entrepreneurs do not have formal mechanisms or identifying business
opportunities, some sources are often fruitful: consumers and business associates, members of
the distribution system, and technical people. Often, consumers are the best source of ideas for a
new venture. How many times have you heard someone comment, “If only there was a product
that would…” This comment can result in the creation of new business. One entrepreneur’s
evaluation of why so many business executives were complaining about the lack of good
technical writing and word-processing services resulted in the creation of her own business
venture to fill this need. Her technical writing service grew to 10 employees in two years.
Due to their close contact with the end user, channel members in the distribution system also see
product needs. One entrepreneur started a college bookstore after haring all the students
complain about the high cost of books and the lack of service provided by the only bookstore on
campus. Many other entrepreneurs have identified business opportunities through a discussion
with a retailer, wholesaler, or manufacturer’s representative.
Finally, technically oriented individuals often conceptualize business opportunities when
working on other projects. One entrepreneur’s business resulted from seeing the application of a
plastic resin compound in developing and manufacturing a new type of pallet while developing
the resin application in another totally unrelated area—casket moldings.
Whether the opportunity is identified by using input from consumers, business associates,
channel members, or technical people, each opportunity must be carefully screened and
evaluated. This evaluation of the opportunity is perhaps the most critical element of the
entrepreneurial process, as it allows the entrepreneur to assess whether the specific product or
service has the returns needed compared to the resources required. This evaluation process
involves looking at the length of the opportunity, its real and perceived value, its risks and
returns, its fit with the personal skills and goals of the entrepreneur, and its uniqueness or
differential advantage in its competitive environment.
The market size and the length of the window of opportunity are the primary basis for
determining the risks and rewards. This risks reflect the market, competition, technology, and
amount of capital involved. The amount of capital needed provides the basis for the return and
rewards. The methodology for evaluating risks and rewards frequently indicates that an
opportunity offers neither a financial nor a personal reward commensurate with the risks
involved. One company that delivered bark mulch to residential and commercial users for
decoration around the base of trees and shrubs added loam and shells to its product line. These
products were sold to the same customer base using the same distribution (delivery) system.
Follow-on products are important for a company expanding or diversifying in a particular
channel. A distribution channel member such as Kmart, Service Merchandise, or Target prefers
to do business with multi-product, rather than single-product, firms.
Finally, the opportunity must fit the personal skills and goals of the entrepreneur. It is
particularly important that the entrepreneur be able to put forth the necessary time and effort
required to make the venture succeed. Although many entrepreneurs feel that the desire can be
developed along the venture, typically it does not materialize. An entrepreneur must believe in
the opportunity so much that he or she will make the necessary sacrifices to develop the
opportunity and manage the resulting organization.
Opportunity analysis, or what is frequently called an opportunity assessment plan, is one method
for evaluating an opportunity. It is not a business plan. Compared to a business plan, it should
be shorter; focus on the opportunity, not the entire venture; and provide the basis for making the
decision of whether or not to act on the opportunity.
An opportunity assessment plan includes the following: a description of the product or service,
an assessment of the opportunity, an assessment of the entrepreneur and the team, specifications
of all the activities and resources needed to translate the opportunity into a viable business
venture, and the source of capital to finance the initial venture as well as its growth. The
assessment of the opportunity requires answering the following questions:
• What market need does it fill?
• What personal observations have you experienced or recorded with regard to that market
need?
• What social condition underlies this market need?
• What market research data can be marshaled to describe this market need?
• What patents might be available to fulfill this need?
• What competition exists in this market? How would you describe the behavior of this
competition?
• What does the international market look like?
• What does the international competition look like?
• Where is the money to be made in this activity?
Developing a Business Plan
A good business plan must be developed in order to exploit the defined opportunity. This is a
very time-consuming phase of the entrepreneurial process. An entrepreneur usually has not
prepared a business plan before and does not have the resources available to do a good job. A
good business plan is essential to developing the opportunity and determining the resources
required, obtaining those resources, and successfully managing the resulting venture.
Determine the Resources Required
The resources needed for addressing the opportunity must also be determined. This process
starts with an appraisal of the entrepreneur’s present resources. Any resources that are critical
need to be differentiated from those that are just helpful. Care must be taken not to
underestimate the amount of variety of resources needed. The downside risks associated with
insufficient or inappropriate resources should also be assessed.
Acquiring the needed resources in a timely manner while giving up as little control as possible is
the next step in the entrepreneurial process. An entrepreneur should strive to maintain as large
an ownership position as possible, particularly in the start-up stage. As the business develops,
more funds will probably be needed to finance the growth of the venture, requiring more
ownership to be relinquished. Alternative suppliers of these resources, along with their needs
and desires, need to be identified. By understanding resource supplier needs, the entrepreneur
can structure a deal that enables the recourses to be acquired at the lowest possible cost and the
least loss of control.
Manage the Enterprise
After resources are acquired, the entrepreneur must use them to implement the business plan.
The operational problems of the growing enterprise must also be examined. This involves
implementing a management style and structure, as well as determining the key variables for
success. A control system must be established, so that any problem areas can be quickly
identified and resolved. Some entrepreneurs have difficulty managing and growing the venture
they created.
Sunday, June 26, 2011
Intrapreneurship
What is Intrapreneurship?: Intrapreneurship is the practice of entrepreneurship by employees within an organization.
Difference between an entrepreneur and an intrapreneur:
An entrepreneur takes substantial risk in being the owner and operator of a business with expectations of financial profit and other rewards that the business may generate. On the contrary, an intrapreneur is an individual employed by an organization for remuneration, which is based on the financial success of the unit he is responsible for. Intrapreneurs share the same traits as entrepreneurs such as conviction, zeal and insight. As the intrapreneur continues to expresses his ideas vigorously, it will reveal the gap between the philosophy of the organization and the employee. If the organization supports him in pursuing his ideas, he succeeds. If not, he is likely to leave the organization and set up his own business.
Example of intrapreneurship: A classic case of intrapreneurs is that of the founders of Adobe, John Warnock and Charles Geschke. They both were employees of Xerox. As employees of Xerox, they were frustrated because their new product ideas were not encouraged. They quit Xerox in the early 1980s to begin their own business. Currently, Adobe has an annual turnover of over $3 billion.
Features of Intrapreneurship: Entrepreneurship involves innovation, the ability to take risk and creativity. An entrepreneur will be able to look at things in novel ways. He will have the capacity to take calculated risk and to accept failure as a learning point. An intrapreneur thinks like an entrepreneur looking out for opportunities, which profit the organization. Intrapreneurship is a novel way of making organizations more profitable where imaginative employees entertain entrepreneurial thoughts. It is in the interest of an organization to encourage intrapreneurs. Intrapreneurship is a significant method for companies to reinvent themselves and improve performance.
In a recent study, researchers compared the elements related to entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial activity. The study found that among the 32,000 subjects who participated in it, five percent were engaged in the initial stages of a business start-up, either on their own or within an organization. The study also found that human capital such as education and experience is connected more with entrepreneurship than with intrapreneurship. Another observation was that intraptreneurial startups were inclined to concentrate more on business-to-business products while entrepreneurial startups were inclined towards consumer sales.
Another important factor that led to the choice between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship was age. The study found that people who launched their own companies were in their 30s and 40s. People from older and younger age groups were risk averse or felt they have no opportunities, which makes them the ideal candidates if an organization is on the look out for employees with new ideas that can be pursued.
Entrepreneurship appeals to people who possess natural traits that find start ups arousing their interest. Intrapreneurs appear to be those who generally would not like to get entangled in start ups but are tempted to do so for a number of reasons. Managers would do well to take employees who do not appear entrepreneurial but can turn out to be good intrapreneurial choices.
Employee Intrapreneur
"Intrapreneurship refers to employee initiatives in organizations to undertake something new, without being asked to do so". This Intrapreneur focuses on innovation and creativity and who transforms a dream or an idea into a profitable venture, by operating within the organizational environment. Thus, Intrapreneurs are Inside entrepreneurs who follow the goal of the organization. Intrapreneurship is an example of motivation through job design.
Employees, perhaps engaged in a special project within a larger firm are supposed to behave as entrepreneurs, even though they have the resources, capabilities and security of the larger firm to draw upon. Capturing a little of the dynamic nature of entrepreneurial management (trying things until successful, learning from failures, attempting to conserve resources, etc.) adds to the potential of an otherwise static organizations without exposing those employees to the risks or accountability normally associated with entrepreneurial failure.
Principles of Innovation
There are five principles that give life to the process of innovation:
- Innovation starts when people convert problems to ideas. New ideas are born through questions, problems and obstacles. The process of innovation is indebted to the trouble that comes about when we are surrounded by that which is not solved, not smooth and not simple. Therefore, in order for the innovation process to flourish, it needs a climate that encourages inquiry and welcomes problems.
- Innovation needs a system. All organizations have innovation systems. Some are formal, designed by the leadership, and some are informal, taking place outside established channels. Informal channels are untidy and inefficient, yet innovation is always associated with them.
- Passion is the fuel, and pain is the hidden ingredient. Ideas do not propel themselves; passion makes them go. Passion, in addition to talent and skill, is a valuable company asset. Passion is what transforms other resources into profits, but it never shows up on a balance sheet. Unfortunately, there seems to be some universal law that says when pursuing a passion or following a dream, pain is part of the process. Innovation leaders need to take the pain with the passion and learn to manage both effectively.
- Co-locating drives effective exchange. Co-location refers to physical proximity between people. It is a key for building the trust that is essential to the innovation process. It also increases the possibility for greater exchange of information, cross-fertilization of ideas, stimulation of creative thinking in one another and critique of ideas during their formative stage.
- Differences should be leveraged. The differences that normally divide people — such as language, culture, race, gender and thinking and problem solving styles — can be a boon to innovation. When differences are used constructively and people move beyond fear, suspicion, mistrust and prejudice, differences can be leveraged to enhance and sustain the innovation process.
Thursday, June 23, 2011
C programing
Some words about Computer Programming languages:
Naturally a language is the source of communication between two persons, and also between person to machine like computer. The languages we can use to communicate with the computer are known as Computer programming languages.
Generally there are two major types of languages are available are as follows:
1.Low level languages
2.The set of commands available in low level is complex and not easy to understandable. In this category " Assembly " and " machine codes " are available. Assembly programs are faster than other high-level language programs.
3.High level languages
The set of commands available in high level language is very simple and easy to understandable.
High level languages are further divided into two major categories.
1.Procedure Oriented language
2.In this category we are able to create our project or programs using procedural approach means in this type we can able to divide our big project/program into small subroutines or procedures. After making procedures we can able to call a ‘procedure’ one or more places.
The lists of procedural languages are as follows:
C language
C++ (Object Oriented)
Java (Objected Oriented)
Smalltalk (Objected Oriented)
Pascal language
3.Non-Procedural Languages: This category also known as ‘Problem Oriented languages’. In this type of languages we can able to make program only at specific range like database. The followings are the examples of Non procedural languages
SQL (Structured Query Language)
SNOBOL (String processor)
History
C was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. Many of its principles and ideas were taken from the earlier language B and B's earlier ancestors BCPL and CPL. CPL ( Combined Programming Language ) was developed with the purpose of creating a language that was capable of both high level, machine independent programming and would still allow the programmer to control the behavior of individual bits of information. The one major drawback of CPL was that it was too large for use in many applications. In 1967, BCPL ( Basic CPL ) was created as a scaled down version of CPL while still retaining its basic features. In 1970, Ken Thompson, while working at Bell Labs, took this process further by developing the B language. B was a scaled down version of BCPL written specifically for use in systems programming. Finally in 1972, a co-worker of Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, returned some of the generality found in BCPL to the B language in the process of developing the language we now know as C.
C's power and flexibility soon became apparent. Because of this, the Unix operating system which was originally written in assembly language, was almost immediately re-written in C ( only the assembly language code needed to "bootstrap" the C code was kept ). During the rest of the 1970's, C spread throughout many colleges and universities because of it's close ties to Unix and the availability of C compilers. Soon, many different organizations began using their own versions of C causing compatibility problems. In response to this in 1983, the American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) formed a committee to establish a standard definition of C which became known as ANSI Standard C. Today C is in widespread use with a rich standard library of functions.
Significant Language Features
C is a powerful, flexible language that provides fast program execution and imposes few constraints on the programmer. It allows low level access to information and commands while still retaining the portability and syntax of a high level language. These qualities make it a useful language for both systems programming and general purpose programs.
C's power and fast program execution come from it's ability to access low level commands, similar to assembly language, but with high level syntax. It's flexibility comes from the many ways the programmer has to accomplish the same tasks. C includes bitwise operators along with powerful pointer manipulation capabilities. C imposes few constraints on the programmer. The main area this shows up is in C's lack of type checking. This can be a powerful advantage to an experienced programmer but a dangerous disadvantage to a novice.
Another strong point of C is it's use of modularity. Sections of code can be stored in libraries for re-use in future programs. This concept of modularity also helps with C's portability and execution speed. The core C language leaves out many features included in the core of other languages. These functions are instead stored in the C Standard Library where they can be called on when needed.. An example of this concept would be C's lack of built in I/O capabilities. I/O functions tend to slow down program execution and also be machine independent when running optimally. For these reasons, they are stored in a library separately from the C language and only included when necessary.
Areas of Application
The C programming language is used in many different areas of application, but the most prolific area is UNIX operating system applications. The C language is also used in computer games:
UNIX operating system
computer games
The Basics of the C Programming Language
C is a programming language that was invented (derived from B, actually) to be a low-level language that would facilitate more easily describing/writing operating system code.
It is general purpose.
The code itself is rather compact.
C is a procedural language (also called a functional language). This distinguishes it from (later invented) object-oriented languages.
NO OBJECTS. NO METHODS ON OBJECTS.
So, your first question ought to be: how does anything get accomplished without objects and methods?
Karen's answer: Computers are really just fancy calculators. Combined with the stored program concept, computers are fancy (and fast) calculators that can re-do their calculations over and over.
What does a computer/calculator do? Arithmetic. On variables. Variables are numerical values that may change over time.
The C language manipulates variables. (Just like any other programming language.)
In a procedural language, procedures (also called functions or subroutines) are the equivalent of an object-oriented language's methods. In C, we call them functions. They operate on parameters (which are often variables).
The control structures (of Java) that you already know were derived from C. The designers of Java (C++, too!) knew that the vast majority of programmers already knew C. Since no one was complaining about the syntax used in C, and so many already knew the syntax, the designers of the Java language used the same syntax! This implies that learning C should be quite easy. . .
Naturally a language is the source of communication between two persons, and also between person to machine like computer. The languages we can use to communicate with the computer are known as Computer programming languages.
Generally there are two major types of languages are available are as follows:
1.Low level languages
2.The set of commands available in low level is complex and not easy to understandable. In this category " Assembly " and " machine codes " are available. Assembly programs are faster than other high-level language programs.
3.High level languages
The set of commands available in high level language is very simple and easy to understandable.
High level languages are further divided into two major categories.
1.Procedure Oriented language
2.In this category we are able to create our project or programs using procedural approach means in this type we can able to divide our big project/program into small subroutines or procedures. After making procedures we can able to call a ‘procedure’ one or more places.
The lists of procedural languages are as follows:
C language
C++ (Object Oriented)
Java (Objected Oriented)
Smalltalk (Objected Oriented)
Pascal language
3.Non-Procedural Languages: This category also known as ‘Problem Oriented languages’. In this type of languages we can able to make program only at specific range like database. The followings are the examples of Non procedural languages
SQL (Structured Query Language)
SNOBOL (String processor)
History
C was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. Many of its principles and ideas were taken from the earlier language B and B's earlier ancestors BCPL and CPL. CPL ( Combined Programming Language ) was developed with the purpose of creating a language that was capable of both high level, machine independent programming and would still allow the programmer to control the behavior of individual bits of information. The one major drawback of CPL was that it was too large for use in many applications. In 1967, BCPL ( Basic CPL ) was created as a scaled down version of CPL while still retaining its basic features. In 1970, Ken Thompson, while working at Bell Labs, took this process further by developing the B language. B was a scaled down version of BCPL written specifically for use in systems programming. Finally in 1972, a co-worker of Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, returned some of the generality found in BCPL to the B language in the process of developing the language we now know as C.
C's power and flexibility soon became apparent. Because of this, the Unix operating system which was originally written in assembly language, was almost immediately re-written in C ( only the assembly language code needed to "bootstrap" the C code was kept ). During the rest of the 1970's, C spread throughout many colleges and universities because of it's close ties to Unix and the availability of C compilers. Soon, many different organizations began using their own versions of C causing compatibility problems. In response to this in 1983, the American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) formed a committee to establish a standard definition of C which became known as ANSI Standard C. Today C is in widespread use with a rich standard library of functions.
Significant Language Features
C is a powerful, flexible language that provides fast program execution and imposes few constraints on the programmer. It allows low level access to information and commands while still retaining the portability and syntax of a high level language. These qualities make it a useful language for both systems programming and general purpose programs.
C's power and fast program execution come from it's ability to access low level commands, similar to assembly language, but with high level syntax. It's flexibility comes from the many ways the programmer has to accomplish the same tasks. C includes bitwise operators along with powerful pointer manipulation capabilities. C imposes few constraints on the programmer. The main area this shows up is in C's lack of type checking. This can be a powerful advantage to an experienced programmer but a dangerous disadvantage to a novice.
Another strong point of C is it's use of modularity. Sections of code can be stored in libraries for re-use in future programs. This concept of modularity also helps with C's portability and execution speed. The core C language leaves out many features included in the core of other languages. These functions are instead stored in the C Standard Library where they can be called on when needed.. An example of this concept would be C's lack of built in I/O capabilities. I/O functions tend to slow down program execution and also be machine independent when running optimally. For these reasons, they are stored in a library separately from the C language and only included when necessary.
Areas of Application
The C programming language is used in many different areas of application, but the most prolific area is UNIX operating system applications. The C language is also used in computer games:
UNIX operating system
computer games
The Basics of the C Programming Language
C is a programming language that was invented (derived from B, actually) to be a low-level language that would facilitate more easily describing/writing operating system code.
It is general purpose.
The code itself is rather compact.
C is a procedural language (also called a functional language). This distinguishes it from (later invented) object-oriented languages.
NO OBJECTS. NO METHODS ON OBJECTS.
So, your first question ought to be: how does anything get accomplished without objects and methods?
Karen's answer: Computers are really just fancy calculators. Combined with the stored program concept, computers are fancy (and fast) calculators that can re-do their calculations over and over.
What does a computer/calculator do? Arithmetic. On variables. Variables are numerical values that may change over time.
The C language manipulates variables. (Just like any other programming language.)
In a procedural language, procedures (also called functions or subroutines) are the equivalent of an object-oriented language's methods. In C, we call them functions. They operate on parameters (which are often variables).
The control structures (of Java) that you already know were derived from C. The designers of Java (C++, too!) knew that the vast majority of programmers already knew C. Since no one was complaining about the syntax used in C, and so many already knew the syntax, the designers of the Java language used the same syntax! This implies that learning C should be quite easy. . .
Friday, June 17, 2011
How to Set up a Wireless Network in Linux
A walkthrough of wireless (IEEE 802.11 also known as WiFi) home networking with Linux.
Steps
When buying a router, note compatibility with Linux. It is wireless adapters that have varying levels of Linux compatibility. If your router isn't new, then turn it on and skip to "Detecting your wireless adapter" (below).
Set up your new router
- Plug your router into your internet socket if you want to share your internet.
- Plug your router into your PC with an ethernet cable.
- Go to your browser and type in the address "192.168.0.1" or whichever address the router's web server is listening.
Linksys router setup screen
- Enter your username and password from your router (often "admin" and "admin") then your internet service provider.
- Enable wireless and set your encryption (WEP or WPA) and type a memorable passkey.
Detecting your wireless adapter
- Your wireless adapter should be detected automatically by your distribution.
- Type sudo lshw to list hardware (or lspci or lsusb).
- If it's not there you will need to lsmod and modprobe (modules are like drivers).
- Typing iwconfig into the terminal can determine what wireless network interfaces have been detected.
- If it isn't and you're using Linux Mint, try MintWifi.
- You may need to use ndiswrapper and your Windows driver.
Connecting to a network
- If you're using KDE, consider KWiFiManager and click "Scan for Networks".
- If you're using Gnome, consider NetworkManager.
- Choose your "Encryption" (WEP or WPA) and enter your passkey.
Tuesday, June 14, 2011
How to Access Your Computer's Programs on Windows Without Using the Start Menu
If your computer won't let you access all programs through the start menu, here's how to access them otherwise.
STEPS:
STEPS:
Windows Vista
- Open the start menu.
- Click Computer.
- Double-click on the Local Disc (C:) icon (May be named slightly different on some computers).
- Click an empty space on the address bar (Bar at top of screen that says Computer > Local Disc (C:)).
- Type C:\ProgramData and press enter/return.
- Open the Microsoft folder.
- Open the Windows folder.
- Open the Start Menu folder.
- Open the Programs folder.
Tips
- When you are in the Documents and Settings folder, you would generally want to open the folder of the username that you are currently using.
- If some programs are missing, try accessing All Users inside Documents and Settings, instead of your username.
- The full address for Windows XP is C:\Documents and Settings\Your Username\Start Menu\Programs and for Windows Vista is C:\ProgramData\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu.
Windows XP
- Open My Computer, on your desktop.
- Double-click on the Local Disc (C:) icon (May be named slightly different on some computers).
- Open the Documents and Settings folder).
- Open the user folder that you want to access programs from.
- Open the Start Menu folder.
- Open the Programs folder.
Tuesday, June 7, 2011
How to Secure Your Wireless Home Network
This article describes techniques a user can use to secure his or her 802.11b/g wireless home network. Securing a wireless network is very important because if you don't, your neighbors can not only borrow your Internet connection, but also access your files. Even worse, hackers can use your internet connection to upload illegal materials, and the FBI will ring your bell...
Steps
- Connect to your router via your browser to perform the following steps.
- Enable encryption on your access point. Using 128-bit encryption or higher makes your Wireless Network more secure. WEP and WPA are entirely different encryption schemes. WEP has been proven insecure and can be cracked in a few minutes using free utilities that can be downloaded from the Internet. Using at least WPA is recommended, because it is much more secure, but is sometimes a bit harder to set up correctly than WEP is, and isn't completely secure. Some older access points or wireless cards do not support WPA2. If you have one of these, it is recommended that you purchase a newer one that supports WPA2, depending on how important you consider your security.
- Set the router access password. Anybody who gains access to the router configuration settings can disable the security you have set up. If you forget the password, most routers have a hardware reset that will restore all of the settings to factory defaults. The best option is to use a random sequence of the maximum length of characters - you only have to type that once, so it is not a big thing. When you connect to the router via LAN cable while setting it up, you can copy and paste the password onto the router and onto your local setting, so you never need to type it again.
- Use a secure password. Don't use easily guessed passwords for your WPA2 or router access passwords, such as "ABC123", "Password", or a string of numbers in order. Use something hard to guess that contains both upper and lowercase letters as well as numbers. Special characters such as !@#$% are not supported by some routers. The longer the key, the better, although the WPA2 key has a minimum and maximum length. Try to make a little mental effort -- good passwords might be hard to remember, but they are harder to crack.
- If you use a weak key then even WPA and WPA2 can be easily cracked within a day using a combination of special precomputed tables and dictionary attacks. The best way to generate a secure key is to use an offline random number generator or write the entire alphabet in uppercase and lowercase and numbers 0-9 on separate pieces of paper, mix the paper up and randomly pick up pieces and return them, mixing them up again each time; each character you pull out becomes a character in your key. You can also try throwing a pair of dice and using the resulting numbers as your password.
- Change the Service Set Identifier (the network name or "SSID") from the default to something unique. A default SSID indicates to hackers that the network was set up by a novice and that other options (such as the password) are also left as the default. Use a name you can remember and identify, as the SSID has no influence on the security of your network (not even if you choose not to broadcast it).
- Enable MAC Address filtering on your Access Point or router. A MAC (not to be confused with the computer model 'Mac') address is a code unique to every wireless networking card in existence. MAC Address filtering will register the hardware MAC Address of your networked devices, and only allow devices with known MAC Addresses to connect to your network. However, hackers can clone MAC addresses and still enter your network, so MAC address filtering should not be used in place of proper WPA2 encryption.
- Don't disable the 'SSID Broadcast'. Do not disable the 'SSID Broadcast' feature of your Access Point or router. This seems counter-intuitive, but it is actually a bad idea.[3] Although this would make your network invisible to your neighbors, any determined hacker can still sniff out your SSID; and you are implicitly forcing your computer to shout out your SSID anywhere you are, while it is trying to connect to it. Anyone could then impersonate your router with that SSID, and get your credentials that way.
- Disable remote login. The first router worm brute forces its way into the router in this manner. Most default usernames are set to Admin. It isn't hard for a virus/worm to crack the password if the username is known. The good thing is that routers normally have this disabled by default. Be sure to confirm that it is disabled when you first set up your router and periodically thereafter. If you need to update your router setting remotely, only set up access for the time you are going to be connected.
- Disable wireless administrating. Finally, change the setting that allows administrating the router through a wireless connection to 'off' (meaning that you need to connect with a LAN cable for administration). This disables any wireless hacking into the router! (aside from breaking into your house)
Tips
- You need to set the same WPA2 Settings on your computer and router.
- Use the 'Shared Key' method of encryption, so that all data passed between clients is encrypted properly.
- Check your Access Point or Routers' documentation on how to enable or disable security features.
- You may need to upgrade the Firmware of your Access Point or Router if it doesn't have any of these features. In some situations, you will need to purchase a new Access Point.
Warnings
- Be sure to register all devices on your network, including computers, laptops, media players, and networked storage if you are using MAC filtering. Also, be sure to enter the MAC addresses correctly as if you enter the wrong ones, you will not be able to connect the computer to the router to change them back and you will need to reset the router. Some routers allow you to save them while they are connected.
- Windows doesn't have individual wireless settings for different wireless domains. This means that the settings that 'share' files at home with your LAN will 'share' files with anybody else's wireless network, even a wireless network masquerading as one you trust.
- Disable 'File and Printer Sharing' in the wireless 'Connection Properties' for your portable computer. Only use the 'Client for Microsoft Networks' half of Microsoft's file sharing. This means that your portable must connect to a machine that shares file/folders in order to access things, and that OTHER computers can't ask to connect to your portable to access files on your machine. At least not through Microsoft's 'File Sharing'. Other running services and back doors may exist.
- A user with a 'cantenna' can access your wireless network from a very long way off. Just because your notebook doesn't get a signal on the porch doesn't mean someone else can't access or monitor your network from a mile away, meaning that even though you don't think anyone in your neighborhood would break into your network, someone far away might.
Sunday, June 5, 2011
How to Troubleshoot Common Computer Problems
Many people experience computer problems. Here's how to fix some of the most common.
Steps:
Pop-Up Troubles
- Adjust your security settings for Pop-Ups (in the Control Panel for Windows) if you click on links and nothing happens. If you just want a quick fix, hold down the "CTRL" key to override the problem.
Internet Connection
- First make sure everything is physically plugged in and turned on. If so, green Link Lights should signify this.
- Check the modem you are connected to, be sure nothing is flashing in exactly the same intervals, as this will usually indicate an RF problem or provisioning issue with your ISP.
- Check your Network Connections under the control panel (windows XP) and note the "Local Area Connection" that says "Connected." Double click this icon and choose Support. Be sure your IP is correct.
- This means it must be an Outside IP address if you are directly connected to the modem. If you are through a router it will likely begin with "192.168.#.#".
- If your ip begines with "169.#.#.#" then your computer was unable to find an IP and you should either reboot your router or modem. If this continues contact your ISP.
Speed Loss
- Remove any unused or rarely used programs. This can be done via your control panel and using the add/remove programs button.
- Check your computer for virus' and spyware. Both can be a severe drain to your computer.
- Check for Tmp files, these are temporary backups that are stored on your computer, you may have to delete then occasionally. You can do this by using the search tool in your computer, search for "*.tmp" delete all of the files that you find, you can do this fast by pressing ctrl + A then ctrl X, if it says you cannot delete them, you may have to do it one by one.
Warnings:
- Before you do any major software change its best to do a system back-up!
- Do only one step at a time; if your system's condition gets worse, go back and reverse your last action. Failure to do this will result in data loss and a visit to your local computer shop.
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